What is ‘unpaid care work’ and why does it matter?

An insight from Ethiopia

by Hidaya Muhiden

The notion that women are ‘carers’ and ‘homemakers’ has influenced societies and labour markets throughout history. Still today around the world, from the wealthiest to poorest societies, the majority of unpaid domestic work is carried out by girls and women.

In low and middle-income countries, poor infrastructure including limited clean water, electricity and roads, can multiply these burdens, forcing girls and women to dedicate significant portions of their day to basic tasks like fetching water or firewood. The time and energy spent on these and other domestic chores (cooking, cleaning, childcare, among others) impacts every aspect of their lives, meaning girls are less likely to finish school, young women are robbed of training and employment opportunities, and mothers are less able to pursue productive well-paid work (Ferrant et al., 2019). Reproductive chores, still primarily the responsibilities of women, confine them in or around the home, restricting their ability to move freely, to fully take part in social and political life, and to influence decision-making processes within their communities and nations.

Gender norms continue to confine girls and women to the domestic sphere in many societies including Ethiopia, replicating inequities into the next generation. This blog analyses the lives of girls and women in Ethiopia, drawing on a rich body of research to show how gendered expectations prevent them from experiencing full and equal lives. We also ask: how do we rebalance and value gendered work and compensate for the labour contributions of women?

What’s going on in Ethiopia?

In Ethiopian communities, men and women play distinct roles, largely determined by patriarchy. Men are expected to be the household’s primary provider and speak for the family outside the home, while women are responsible for all household duties.

Socialisation to these distinct roles, including through highly-gendered divisions of labour, takes place from earliest childhood. Rural boys, for example, are often tasked with caring for the families’ livestock in between attending school; girls in contrast spend large portions of their days fetching water and gathering firewood (Abate, 2017). Girls typically start preparing for ‘motherwork’ in Ethiopia at around the age of five; by 12 many are regularly performing household chores without adult supervision (Crivello et al., 2019). Some are also tasked with caring for younger children, the elderly or the sick, which can lead to them missing out on school. For example, a study from Northwest Ethiopia (Desta, 2019) found that girls work more hours in the home than boys, play less and have less leisure time throughout their childhood and adolescence.

Young women are expected to develop very specific skills, many of which revolve around cooking, cleaning and other household chores. In rural areas, or areas with poor basic infrastructure, these burdens are particularly heavy, and girls and women may spend large parts of their days collecting firewood and water. Other ‘women’s tasks’ in and around the home – including childcare, animal husbandry, and agricultural activities such as planting, weeding and harvesting – are usually unpaid. Reproductive roles are considered the rightful domain of women. Men’s involvement including in childcare is often minimal (Tigabie et al., 2022).

Such household burdens take up much energy and productive time, which might otherwise be spent at school, in paid work, or in community, social and political activities. One result of this is that girls are less likely to be well educated, find jobs (especially good jobs) and be paid as much as men (Carmichael et al., 2023). The same study finds that by the age of 22 women are less likely to be in paid employment, and earn less than men. Women also appear to have fewer opportunities for higher-quality employment, and are more likely to choose jobs based on need rather than choice.

Heavy domestic burdens force women to stay close to home, and limit their ability to move freely, socialise, access education and training, and take part in community/political life. Limited opportunities – together with familiar/social pressures – may lead rural girls and adolescents to marry early or migrate to the cities in search of a better life (Berhanu et al., 2019)
Although women take on the majority of housework and child care, in some areas of Ethiopia (i.e. South Wollo) they are also co-breadwinners, make up 50% of the agricultural labour force, spend more time on agricultural activities than men, and play significant roles both in agricultural production and household food security (Abate, 2017). They may, in addition, manage multiple complex livelihood strategies, producing crops, tending animals, processing and preparing food, as well as trading and marketing. Yet even then, women are often unpaid, or paid less for the same work than men (Abate, 2017).
The demands of household duties, caretaking, animal husbandry, agriculture and other unpaid work consumes women’s time and life opportunities, yet such activities are not counted in Ethiopia’s national definitions of ‘labour’, and are rarely valued or paid. Women’s vital contributions to domestic life, agriculture and household food security are – in short – undervalued, as well as largely ignored in national policy and resource allocation (Maestre and Thorpe, 2016)

There are enormous additional impacts from the gendered norms that consign women to the home, to domesticity and to restricted spatial roles. Less paid work means less income, less access to and ownership of resources, less autonomy and decision-making power, and financial dependence on fathers, husbands, brothers and sons. Fewer women in higher education and the professional classes, means fewer women in leadership and political roles, which in turn means less focus and action on women’s issues. Perhaps most worrying of all is the way that narrow, rigidly-defined gender roles deprive women of confidence in themselves, with patriarchal values often internalised with feelings that ‘men are better than women’ or that ‘a woman’s rightful place is in the home’. Such beliefs deprive women of agency, and the ability to fully participate in the richness of life in all its spheres.

The Ethiopian government has taken proactive steps in recent years at the national policy level to better protect the rights of girls and women, and encourage their participation in education, professional and civic life (FDRE, 2019). Changes in traditional gender norms can be seen in the increased value placed on primary education for girls, as well as in young women’s greater participation in economic activities outside the home. However, the fulfilment of girl and women’s rights are still hindered by social, cultural, religious and economic factors, including gender norms, customs, creeds, systems, structures, policies and laws that persist in ‘naturalising’ distinct male and female roles and perpetuating women’s subordination. The lack of women reaching tertiary education and beyond, as well as the lack of women in leadership roles, mean that – at the highest levels – women’s issues, lives and challenges do not receive the attention and action they deserve.

Key points

In Ethiopian societies, men and women play distinct roles, determined by patriarchy.
Domestic tasks are considered the primary responsibility of girls and women.
Girls and boys are sensitised to gendered roles from the earliest age, with girls being prepared for ‘motherwork’ from around the age of five.
Girls spend longer on household chores than boys throughout their childhoods and adolescence.
Heavy domestic burdens within the home limits freedom of movement, and make girls and women less likely to access education, training and paid employment opportunities.
They are also less likely to take part in community, social and political life.
Women are underrepresented in professional, political, leadership and decision-making roles.
Limited opportunities (together with familiar/societal pressures) may lead rural girls and adolescents to marry early or migrate to the cities.
Women’s vital contributions to agricultural production and household food security are largely unpaid and undervalued, and often ignored in policy / resource allocations.
Negative gender norms, customs, creeds, systems, structures, policies and laws continue to perpetuate women’s subordination and hinder their empowerment.

Recommendations

Policy makers can help reduce women’s heavy burden of unpaid care work, and expedite gender equality through:
Awareness raising: To change the gendered social, cultural and religious attitudes/ norms / practices that negatively impact women.
Changing Practices: Promoting a more gender-equitable division of domestic labour.
Education: Providing financing and other support to allow all girls and young women to complete secondary education
Employment: Intervening to improve employment opportunities for women, e.g. through affirmative action.
Representation: Empowering and promoting women in civic leadership, political and decision-making roles.
Policies: Analysing policies from a gender perspective, and revising them to better recognise the realities of current living conditions and support better outcomes (including economically) for girls and young women.
Resources: Providing low-income households with access to credit services, and allocating resources for gender-targeted interventions.
Laws: Creating laws to promote women in the public sector and to address the structural barriers that prevent women’s full economic participation.

Talk to us!

How do we rebalance gendered work, value the vital role unpaid labour plays in societies and fairly compensate women for their unpaid labour contributions?

In Ethiopia, patriarchal belief systems are perpetuated by gender norms, customs, systems, structures, policies and laws, and women occupy disadvantaged positions despite their immense labour contributions (paid and unpaid). Numerous interventions (including better awareness, strategies, and policies) are needed to change gender norms, improve women’s working conditions, properly value their labour contributions, and protect their rights. But how do we go about that? If you have an answer please leave a comment below. We’d love to hear your thoughts from Ethiopia and elsewhere.

Acknowledgment
This blog is the first of a series to reflect on our learnings from a project under the Growth and Economic Opportunities for Women (GrOW) – East Africa Initiative. GrOW is jointly funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and The William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. We thank GrOW wholeheartedly for funding and making this project on ‘Enhancing women’s economic empowerment (WEE) and tackling unpaid care (UC) in Ethiopia possible. We also acknowledge our gratitude to our partners; WISE for capacity strengthening of key policy actors, and Addis PowerHouse for strengthening the in-country coalition of key WEE champions.

References

Abate, N. (2017). An Investigation of Gender Division of Labour: The Case of Delanta District, South Wollo Zone, Ethiopia. Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 9 (9), 207 – 214.
Berhanu, et al. (2019). The Situation of Child Marriage In Qewet And Bahir Dar Zurida: A Focus on Gender Roles, Parenting and Young People’s Future Perspectives. Yes I Do.
Bichelmeier, V. (2022). Unpaid Care Work and Motherhood: MMM Calls on ILO To Change Employment Approach. MMM. Available at: https://makemothersmatter.org/unpaid-care-work-and-motherhood-mmm-calls-on-ilo-to-change-employment-approach/
Carmichael et al. (2023). The Contribution of Girls’ Longer Hours In Unpaid Work To Gender Gaps In Early Adult Employment: Evidence From Ethiopia, India, Peru, And Vietnam. Feminist Economics, 29 (1), 1 – 37
Crivello, G., Boyden, J. and Pankhurst, A. (2019). ‘Motherhood in Childhood’: Generational Change in Ethiopia. Feminist Encounters: A Journal of Critical Studies in Culture and Politics”, 3 (1-2), 12.
Desta, C. G. (2019). Resources, Time and Gender: Determinants of Women’s Housework in Bahir Dar and nearby Rural Villages, Northwest Ethiopia. Journal of Family Issues, 41 (4), 507–541.
Ferrant, G., Pesando, L. and Nowacka, K. (2014). Unpaid Care Work: The Missing Link in the Analysis of Gender Gaps in Labour Outcomes. Boulogne Billancourt: OECD Development Center.
Kassa, S. (2015). Challenges and Opportunities of Women Political Participation in Ethiopia. Journal of Global Economics, 3 (4), 162.
Maestre, M. and Thorpe, J. (2016). Unpaid Care Work – Facilitating Change Towards Women’s Economic Empowerment when Market Systems Care. IDS and Oxfam. London: DFID and SDC, BEAM Exchange.
Tigabie, M. A., Kassa, Y., Teferra, B. and Mamo, D. (2022). Rural Women’s Role in Agriculture and Household Workloads: the Case of North Shewa Amhara Region, Ethiopia. The Official Journal of the Amhara Agricultural Research Institute, 2(2), 86.
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. (2019). Fifth National Report on Progress made in the Implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (Beijing +25)