Ayana, A. N., Arts, B., & Wiersum, K. F. (2018). How environmental NGOs have influenced decision making in a ‘semi-authoritarian state: The case of forest policy in Ethiopia. World Development, 109, 313-322.
Overview: Environmental NGOs (ENGOs) play a significant role in sustainable development, particularly in forest and environmental governance. However, there is limited empirical evidence on their impact on policy decisions in semi-authoritarian contexts. This paper uses the policy arrangement approach (PAA) to analyse policy processes in Ethiopia, revealing that ENGOs influence policy-making even without formal invitation. The study aims to understand the influence of ENGOs on the forest policy process by examining their contribution to transforming the PFM concept into a dominant policy discourse, forming a coalition, mobilising resources and power to promote it, and formalising it into binding rules.
Methodology: This paper aims to understand the strategies and extent to which ENGOs have affected the institutionalisation of recent forest policy reform in Ethiopia. A qualitative case study approach was employed and 85 informants from various groups were interviewed, focusing on driving factors. The analysis was guided by the PAA concepts, which reconstructed the collected data along discourse, actors/coalitions, resources and power, and rules.
Findings: The PFM institutionalisation process involved a shift from mass mobilisation to a partnership arrangement, where participants negotiate and agree on defined rights and responsibilities. ENGOs have played important roles in Ethiopia forest policy making since the mid-1990s, employing three roles: field actor and action coordinator, transmitting new forestry and environmental knowledge and values to Ethiopian society, and becoming partners in collaborative governance with the Ethiopian state. These roles have enabled ENGOs to significantly influence the formal institutionalisation of PFM in Ethiopian forest policy and law. They employ indirect strategies, such as demonstrating innovative policy approaches, documenting field evidence, forming networks, forging alliances, and investing resources. The PAA is a suitable analytical tool for understanding policy processes in various political contexts, from pluralist democracies to semi-authoritarianism.
Conclusion: This paper reveals that ENGOs can influence policy-making under semi-authoritarian conditions, even without direct invitation. They use indirect strategies like implementing pilot projects, documenting field evidence, forming networks, forging alliances, and investing resources. These strategies are effective when ENGOs understand and act upon the existing socio-political context and receive reliable donor support. The growing role and impact of ENGOs in forest and environmental governance are enabled by changes in socio-political trends, such as globalisation, decentralisation, democratisation, and environmental awareness. Further research is needed to understand which ENGOs are more effective and influential.